Welcome to my Communication & Organisation Blog

(Caption: Ms Catherine and Tutorial Group Mates)


The main objective of this blog is to aid better understanding on the communication processes in organisations as well as to fulfill the requirement of my portfolio assignment for COMM 3004: Communication and Organisations.

For quick and easy viewing, I have created tabs on the sidebar for each chapter that I have covered throughout my 14 weeks in this course.

Each chapter comprises of key pointers that I have discovered and discussed through lectures, tutorials, journal articles and other sources.

I hope you enjoy viewing this educational blog as I have enjoyed developing it.

Warm Regards,

Melizarani T.Selva

UniSA ID: 110023396

Chapter 14: The Changing Landscape of Organisations

From the lecture, I discovered the changes that occur currently in organisations. This changing environment has four broad categories:

• Communication in a global workplace: Opening different outlets and branches of an organisation in various countries. Each branch blends accordingly to the culture and environment its’ situated in.  
• Communication in an era of shifting industry: Establishing brand identity and presence owing to the saturated market and merging of companies.
• Communication in a service economy: Providing efficient service and meeting to customers’ demands.
• Communication in the age of disposable worker: Freelance and independent workers, who contribute ideas but are not firmly placed in the organisation.

A memorable photo of my classmates and I.

As my classmates and I head into the working world, I’ve come to realize that the learning experience has only just begun. Communication and Organisation has truly been an insightful course on working in the industry, I look forward to experiencing it for myself in time to come.

C&O Tutorial Class 2011 with lecturer Ms Catherine.

Chapter 13: Technological Processes

In the new age of technology, Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has governed the communication practice of society. Face to Face communication has taken a backseat amongst the current generation who spend a major amount of their time online. Furthermore, CMC channels such as emails, video conferencing, and social media are now significant formal communication channels. (Trauth & Kwan, 1984) states that traditional communication channels are slowly being replaced by these new channels which made me wonder…when was the last time I received a handwritten letter or postcard?

The Media Richness Model (Miller 2008, p.243) was also explained during the lecture. The model focuses on how to choose the most suitable communication media for a situation. The model portrays that the higher the ambiguity of the task, the higher the media richness should be. Low ambiguous media such as memo notes can be used for low ambiguous information/task. Whereas high ambiguity media such as face to face communication is used for high ambiguous information.

Media Richness Model from textbook (Miller, 2008)

I must admit that social media, particularly Facebook has truly been a blessing throughout my degree program. It has been of tremendous help in facilitating group discussions, promoting events and getting the latest news updates. For Tutorial Group 3, we’ve set up our own Facebook group for us to discuss topics and assignments.

Tutorial Facebook Group

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Mohan, T 2004, Communicating as Professionals, Thomson, Southbank, Victoria.

Trauth, EM Kwan, SK 1984, 'Channel Selection and Effective Communication for Managerial Decision Making', ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 123-140.

Chapter 12: Organisational Diversity Processes

Women in Organisations

Being a career driven woman, the lecture topic of women in organisation particularly intrigued me to read further on this pointer. I have always preferred a balance of both genders in my discussion groups and project teams for better productivity. This is because women tend to be more emotionally inclined when making work-related decisions whereas men are more objective and egoistic; combining the two distinct qualities proved to be more effective in accomplishing goals. During my time in the LEAD @Taylor’s leadership program, I was randomly placed into a group of only women. Though I had my doubts, these bright and extremely passionate women proved to me that being emotionally driven is not entirely negative; instead it can facilitate successful execution of tasks and build lasting relationships.

The all girls team of LEAD @ Taylor's with coordinator, Mr Ronson

For decades, women have been subjected to two discriminatory challenges: the “glass ceiling” and sexual harassment. The “glass ceiling” refers to a ‘subtle yet strong barriers’ Miller (2008, p.218) that prevents women from climbing the corporate ladder in organisations; although they may be highly educated, competent and qualified. Fortunately in Malaysia, the government has approved a policy that ‘30% of those in decision-making positions in the corporate sector’ must be held by women.

Sexual harassment refers to the ‘unwelcomed verbal or physical sexual advances’ Miller (2008, p.229). Even suggestive sexual comments fall under the harassment category; and may result in a hostile working environment. Hence, it is vital for women to know their rights in the workplace and protect themselves from ill advances.

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Anis, MN 2011, ‘PM: 30% of corporate decision-makers must be women’, Star, 27 June, p.3

Chapter 11: Processes of Emotion in the Workplace

This week’s lecture made me reflect upon my life as a final year degree student while juggling other roles; daughter, friend, club president, confidant, etc. Although I have a firm belief that emotions should not disrupt one’s professional instinct; in other words, no matter how bad our day is, we should always “paste a smile” when at work.

No matter how tough things get; just keep smiling (Angelyn)

The topic of ‘burnout’ particularly caught my attention. Defined as a ‘chronic condition or “wearing out” due to daily work pressures’ Miller (2008, p.205) burnout consists of three interconnected dimensions:

• Emotional exhaustion: when an individual is too fatigued to carry on with the task at hand
• Lack of personal accomplishment: when employees’ are plagued with the notion of being incapable to accomplish their work as per required
• Depersonalization: happens among people whose job requires them to communicate with others regularly. Such employees tend to ‘develop poor opinions’ of certain individuals, ‘expect the worst from them’ and end up ‘actively disliking them’ Miller (2008, p.206)

Stressors that lead to burn out could be ‘role conflict’ when there is a clash between the various roles one has to play or ‘role ambiguity’ where the individual is uncertain or confuses the role requirements. Prolonged burnout could result in mental and physical diseases; therefore, I plan to be more conscious of my well being.

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Chapter 10: Organizational Changes and Leadership Processes

Organisational Change

From the lecture, I was particularly interested in the ‘Unplanned Change’ that explore the communication strategies throughout a crisis. Unplanned changed range from ‘natural disasters, ethical issues, to financial losses and severe human errors’ Miller (2008, p.187) This form of random change can be ‘reaction to unseen or unanticipated influences’ Strategic Leadership and Decision Making (2009)

In the pre-crisis stage the organisation must anticipate and ‘prevent possible problems’ Miller (2008, p.187). At the crisis stage, the massive uncertainties will require the organisation to work collectively to make sense of the crisis at hand. Finally, at the post-crisis stage, communication procsess are geared towards determining who is responsible or apologizing for mistakes made. These communication strategies will guide organisations in coping with unplanned change and circumstances.

Leadership Process

Owing to my deep passion for this topic, I based my research paper (Assignment 1 & 2) upon leadership communication strategies. In order to fulfill better assignment quality standards, I enrolled myself into a 3 month intensive leadership program, LEAD @ Taylor’s to gain better insight and first hand experience in effective leadership processes.

After discussing the journal article ‘The Relative Importance of Leadership in Virtual and Face-to-Face Communication Settings’ (Zimmerman et al, 2008) with my group mates; I presented the research findings to the class.

My Presentation on Leadership 

The aim of the study was to analyse the importance of task oriented or/and relationship leadership behaviours in virtual settings (CMC) as compared to face to face communication. The researchers used the quantitative study on a random sample of 1500 employees at Shell GSI; out of which 412 responded. The respondents’ were technical experts based in across the globe and of diverse ethnicities. Using the Likert Scale measurement, both task oriented communication was preferred in a virtual setting where as relationship oriented communication was preferred in a face-to-face setting.

The discussion revealed several pros and cons of both settings. Virtual settings allow easier access of information but lacked emotion as well as visual and auditory cues; this may result in the misinterpretation of messages. Although face-to-face communication settings enables rapport building among individuals in the organisation; would not very suitable to the global nature of this organisation. For instance, meetings are not cost effective. In conclusion, virtual setting is future of organisational communication hence, leaders need to alter their leadership styles to the changing settings.

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Strategic Leadership and Decision Making 2009, National Defense University, viewed 10 November 2011, <http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/ndu/strat-ldr-dm/pt4ch19.html>

Zimmerman, P, Wit, A & Gill, R 2008,‘The Relative Importance of Leadership Behaviours in Virtual and Face-to-Face Communication Settings’, Leadership, vol 4, no. 3, pp. 321–337

Chapter 9: Conflict Management Processes

Narrating the skit.

Manager (myself in red) playing various roles to resolve conflict

My tutorial group mates and I created short skit to creatively illustrate the various roles of a leader in Managerial Third Party Conflict Resolution. Third Party in this case, could also refer to a mediator or an individual outside the organisation.

A manager can switch roles in order to solve a conflict such as ‘the motivator’ who rewards or reprimands to resolve a conflict or ‘the investigator’ who digs for facts of the argument and hands it over to a relevant authority (which could be someone of higher position in the company or a lawyer)

People from outside the organisation such as mediators may be called upon as a third party to resolve the conflict. This person will advise and counsel the parties involved while ‘maintaining control over the process and outcome’ Miller (2008, p.169) of the situation.

From my additional reading, I discovered that Outside Third Party resolution method may not necessarily be ideal as it is likely for mediators or arbitrators to be biased or have hidden agendas. (Fisher, 2001) explains that conflict management may not be effective with biased third party individuals with ‘political agendas and tangible interests in the dispute’. Hence, this resolution method may need to be studied further to measure its effectiveness.

References:

Fisher, RJ 2001, ‘Methods of Third Party Intervention’, Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, Berlin, Germany

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA

Chapter 2: Classical Approaches

This week’s lecture and chapter looks at three classical approaches of an organisation’s structure: Henri Fayol’s Theory of Classical Management, Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy and Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management. 

Henri Fayol’s Theory of Classical Management focuses on a more traditional management structure that comprises ‘elements of planning, commanding, coordinating, controlling  and organising’ Miller (2009). His theory also consists of principles for ‘highly structured and hierarchical’ management, power relationships, appropriate rewarding and proper attitudes of people within an organisation. Fayol places great emphasis on efficiency and productivity in the organisation and his theory is often applied to the fast food chain and manufacturing sector.

Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy is the most interesting among the three theories as it features an ‘idealized type of organisation’ Miller (2009) where it emphasizes on a closed system that isolates itself from influences from the surrounding environment that may disrupt its function. Similar to a governmental system, Weber focuses on rules and rational legal authority within an organisation. Weber goes on to explain three possible grounds of authority: Traditional authority (president of a team or director of a company), Charismatic authority (individual’s personality and ability to attract or influence others), Rational-legal authority (power from expertise, rationality and obedience to rules) This theory is more suitable for military organisations.

Frederick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management concentrates on the ‘strict division between workers and managers’ (Miller, 2009) Physical labor is provided by the workers while mental planning is done by the managers.

The “mechanical” communication processes in organisations can be studied by:

(1) Communication content (work-related or social)

(2) Direction of communication flow (upward, horizontal)

(3) Channel of communication (face to face, computer mediated)

(4) Style of communication (formal with official address, informal, slang)

My group mates and I discussed the Creamy Creations Takeover by Burger Barn case study to prepare for the upcoming tutorial. Although the Creamy Creations’ business were generating profits after the takeover, the question prevail whether its original name should be kept. To measure customers’ satisfaction on the dishes served, surveys may be conducted. Results from the survey would also determine the productivity rate of the niche Small Medium Enterprise (SME).

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Chapter 1: Communication in Organisations

Chapter 1: Communication in Organisations

In the first lecture, I was introduced to the definitions of communication and organisations. Communication is process conducted by two or more people who create and manage meaning using verbal and non-verbal signs within a certain context. The process is better defined with David Berlo’s Transmission Model as show in the diagram below:

David Berlo’s Transmission Model

Communication can be rhetorical (communication strategies during a crisis), semiotic (use of signs), phenomenological (dialogue or others’ experience), cybernetic (info processing), sociopsychological (expression and influence by personality style), sociocultural (social order in ethnic cultures), critical (confrontations) It was explained that our task is to study the various communication approaches and learn which are suitable for certain situations.

Organisation is defined as a social collective that that coordinates activities to achieve organizational, business or community goals in a structure (hierarchical, co-operative, complex) embedded in a particular surrounding. Example of organisations are businesses, corporations, non-governmental or even a family or social circle.

Combination of both elements forms Organisational Communication; the complex interaction of people, messages, goals and meaning. Organisational communication may be internally (between employees and employers) as well as externally (clients and media) and the subject is ‘a flourishing field of research’ internationally (Johansson, 2007). I was also introduced to the various research topics based upon this subject and discovered that I was to develop my own research for my upcoming assignment.

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Johansson, C 2007, ‘Research on Organizational Communication: The Case of Sweden’, Nordicom Review, vol. 28, no.1, pp. 93-110.

Chapter 8: Decision-Making Processes

This week’s lecture focused on the models of decision making process in organisations and small groups. Further reading of the chapter was done to improve my comprehension of the models.

Discussion on Decision Making Processes

Nutt’s Normative Model comprises of five stages:

1. Formulation: management team identifies the varying wants and needs of the organisational members
2. Development: alternative solutions for the problem are generated by the team
3. Detailing: Subgroups may be formed to ‘get more detail on the pros and cons’ Miller (2008, p.140) of the suggested solutions and tests its functionality
4. Evaluation: information and suggested options are scrutinized in order to weigh the benefits and losses’
5. Implementation: the evaluated decision is implemented into the organisation

Fisher’s Model for Small-group Decision Making

This model consists of four phases. In the ‘orientation’ phase, the group will identify the crisis at hand. Next, the ‘conflict’ phase where ideas are debated amongst group members, Third, the ‘emergence’ phase is where group members exchange ideas to ‘arrive at some level of consensus’ Miller (2008, p.143) Finally, the ‘reinforcement’ phase is when group member have collectively agreed upon a solution and seeks reinforcement to support the

If these guidelines are not applied in the decision making process, it may disrupt effective communication and lead to problematic decisions that lead to fruitless results.

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA

Chapter 7: Assimilation Processes

Initially I was intrigued by the content of this topic as it seemed to be rather complicating; fortunately the lecture and some additional reading helped me understand the processes involved.

Assimilation can be defined as the manner of which ‘individuals assimilate to organisational life’ or in simple terms it is how employees joining an organisation and adapting to the behavioural patterns and communication processes of the organisation and its members. Assimilation consists of two processes:

• Socialization: the employee learns about the organisation and its requirements. He/She may also change to suit the organisation’s qualities better.

• Individualisation: is when the organisation adjusts to the employee by accepting new ideas from him/her suiting to the individual’s capabilities

Group Presentation on Assimilation

I found this topic to be of great relevance to me as I will facing my internship program in a reputable organisation. This topic will most definitely help me blend into the organisation better.

The assimilation process consists of three steps; which were further discussed and acted out in a role play activity during tutorial.

• Step One: The interview; the potential employee and the employer as well as organisational members will get to know each other through a series of closed questions or open questions.
• Step Two: The new employee and the organisation find ways to adjust to each other. During this stage, the novice should observe and ask a lot of questions to gain better comprehension of the organisation and its members. At this stage, both parties will learn more about each other plus build professional and social relationships.
• Step Three: The new employee is accepted and firmly placed in the organisation. According to Kramer (2010) this is the metamorphosis process where employees ‘face continuous changes and familiarize better with the organization’s culture’

At the exit stage, employees leave the organisation for various reasons, for instance, retirement or resignation. Sense making is crucial at this point; hence employers should have exit interviews with these employees in order to gauge the success or failure of organisational practices and also receive feedback on employees’ satisfaction for further improvement. 

References:

Kramer, MW 2010, Organizational Socialization: Joining and Leaving Organizations, Polity Press, Cambridge

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA

Chapter 6: Critical Approaches

As I focused my research paper and assignments on the leadership, I paid close attention to the topic of power in the organisational setting.

In lecture, Ms Catherine explained that power is a significant feature in organisational life and its concept is associated with ‘related constructs of control and domination’. Conrad and Ryan (1985) outlined three approaches of power:

• Traditional Approach: a comparatively ‘stable entity that individuals or groups posses’ and equated with the management over ‘resources or with hierarchical status’ in organisations
• Symbological/interpretive: communicative interactions and organisational relationships results in power
• Radical-critical: looks at how ‘economic, social and communicative relationship’ can create and maintain power relationships within the establishment.

Tutorial Group mates discussing the topic before presenting to the class

In tutorial, my group mates and I were assigned to discuss the significant sources of power in an organisation Miller (2008,p.103) namely:

1. Formal authority (rational or legal power)
2. Control of scarce resources
3. Use of organisational structure, rules and regulations
4. Control of decision processes
5. Control knowledge and information
6. Control of boundaries
7. Control of technology
8. Control of counter-organisations
9. Control of scarce resources
10. Management of meaning and symbolism
11. Gender and management of gender relationships
12. Ability to cope with uncertainty
13. Interpersonal alliances, networks & control of informal
14. Existing personal power (leaders’ charisma)

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA

Chapter 5: Cultural Approaches

From the lecture and tutorial, I was enlightened on the various approaches to organisational culture such as Deal & Kennedy’s Strong Culture components and Peters & Waterman’s Excellent Culture. The Schein’s Model of Orgnisational Culture was particularly intriguing as it was an alternative approach to the subject.

Schein’s Model of Orgnisational Culture

Schein defines culture as ‘a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaption & internal integration’ (Miller, 2009, p.88) This definition is considered to be ‘a three layered phenomenon’ Reiman & Oedewald (2001) as shown in the diagram below:

Level 1 – Artefacts: This layer looks at the ‘physical and social environment’ Miller (2008, p.89) that organisational members create and reside in. It focuses on physical entities such as the technology used and dress code as well as the behavioural patterns such as communication and decision making styles.

Level 2 - Espoused Values: This layer showcases an organisation’s ‘official objectives, declared norms and operating philosophy’ Reiman & Oedewald (2001) For instance, managers who believe in recognition will compliment and reward his employees when necessary and employees who value time and hard work, will work long hours to meet deadlines and increase productivity.

Level 3 – Core Assumptions: The innermost layer portrays the notions a group perceives about ‘the world and how it work’ which also involves, human nature,, time value and reality itself. Individuals of a group base their organisational behaviour according to these assumptions.

In summary, Schein’s “onion model” illustrates the link between the three layers. The innermost layer on assumptions influences the second layer; the way a group’s ‘value towards products and services’ Miller (2008, p.89) The outermost layer comprising of artefacts and social conduct is reflected off such values (the second layer)

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA

Reiman, T & Oedewald, P 2001, ‘The assessment of organisational culture: A methodological study’, VTT Industrial Systems, viewed on 5 November 2011, <http://www.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/tiedotteet/2002/T2140.pdf>

Chapter 4: Systems Approaches

The lecture of this chapter provided a very interesting viewpoint; a system as an organism that enables one to identify the three key features; hierarchal ordering, interdependence and permeability.

This fascinating approach compares likens an organisation to an organism. For instance in a human body, the internal organs are aligned to maximize accordingly and are interdependent in order to function effectively. For instance, all vital organs’ depend on the blood flow pumped by the heart. The human body also depends on the air and water, which is processed throughout the body; similarly, an organisation needs the inflow and outflow of information for it to be successful. Three system theories can be identified based on this approach; Cybernetic Systems Theory, Karl Weick’s theory of organizing, ‘New Science’ system theories.

In tutorial, fellow group mate Fahd Nazeer presented a case study about sensemaking after acquisition where a marketing company Sales Informatics (SI) was acquired by another company Marketron. Although majority of the SI employees were given position at Marketron, one of the employees, Helen was left unconfirmed. Through the application of Weick’s Model of Organizing (1969) Helen’s position in a highly equivocal environment was determined. Nazeer illustrated the process of reducing equivocality with the diagram below. 

The Weick's Model as presented by Fahd Nazeer

Marketron’s takeover by SI was the ecological change and the enactment is her ambiguity of her employment in the new establishment. Hence, she selected several methods to reduce the uncertainty of her employment status, Helen enquired with the Human Resource department of Marketron and also sought answers by contacting her former colleagues. Finally, in the Retention stage, she will keep the gathered information for future use.

With the application of the Cybernetic Systems theory where organisations directed towards system goals (Miller 2008), Helen is recommended to practice the three components: system goals, mechanisms and feedback. Helen should change her mechanisms by meeting the HR person in charge directly to discuss her employment status and ultimately achieve her goal.

References:

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA

Chapter 3: Human Relations and Human Resources Approaches

From the many theories explained in lecture and discussions during tutorial, the following two examples in particular aided my understanding of two approaches’ emphasis upon human needs at the workplace.

The Human Relations Approach: 

Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Needs 

According to Maslow’s theory, individuals have five basic needs that need to be fulfilled:

Physiological needs: this involves the basic needs for survival; food, water, shelter, living wages

Safety needs: the ‘desire to be free from danger and environmental threats’ Miller (2009) Forinstance, a conducive working space and condition.

Affiliation needs: is done by establishing social and casual relationship with colleagues in order to fulfill “romantic needs” 

Esteem needs: when an individual seeks to feel respected, appreciated and a sense of accomplishment.

Need for Self-Actualization: desire to discover one’s ultimate potential and ‘become everything that one is capable of becoming’ Maslow (1943)

Heylighen (1992) explains that a lower need is “urgent” and vital to be satisfied ‘before a higher need can take over’ For example, if an employee’s basic needs of adequate salary and a proper working space; the employee will be frustrated and will not fulfill the higher need of social relationships within the organisation. 

The Human Resources Approach:
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (1964)

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial grid, is a tool designed to guide leaders on enhancing their leadership skill and improving organsational efficiency. 

The grid provides a postulation that leaders who have ‘concern for people and concern for production’ Miller (2009) are more effective.

Following the group discussion and tutorial presentation, greater understanding was acheieved when my group applied the grid into the ‘Teamwork at Marshall’s Processing Plant‘ case study.

At Marshall, the manager induces the cooperation of his employees by offering a combination of reward and penalty (when necessary) in order to maintain employee satisfaction at an optimum level. This is known as the Team Management category where the leader looks after the people and the production. However, this strategy was ineffective as the leader resorted back to the Authority Compliance stage as employees began to take advantage of his concern and complaint about their dissatisfaction. 

As the Human Resource theory urges leaders to have more concern over their people; it is also important for them to be more open to feedback and criticism; if the manager of Marshall welcomed feedback positively, the Human Resource theory would be effective in the organisation.

References

Heylighe, F 1992, ‘A Cognitive-Systemic reconstruction of Maslow’s theory of self-actualization’, Behavioral Science, vol. 37, pp 39-57

Maslow, A 1943, ‘Maslow Hierarchy of Needs Theory’, USA

Miller, K 2008, Organizational Communication: approaches and processes, 5th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.